Carried by outrigger canoes to the East African coast and by camels along the Silk Road from China in the first and second centuries BC, spices led to the rise of the powerful maritime kingdoms of Srivijaya and Majapahit in the archipelago and, in the sixteenth century onwards, to the establishment of trading monopolies and colonial empires as first the Portuguese, followed by the Spanish, Dutch, and English, broke into the lucrative spice trade.